The Location of Pentecost

Introduction

Jesus thought it was important for His followers to be filled with the Holy Spirit and told His disciples in Luke 24:49: “Behold, I send the Promise of My Father upon you; but tarry in the city of Jerusalem until you are endued with power from on high.” A short time later, in Acts 1:4-5: “… [Jesus] commanded them not to depart from Jerusalem, but to wait for the Promise of the Father, “which,” He said, “you have heard from Me; 5 for John truly baptized with water, but you shall be baptized with the Holy Spirit not many days from now.”

The biblical account in Acts 2 describes the Day of Pentecost occurring when the disciples “were all together in one place” (Acts 2:1, ESV), with a sound like a violent wind filling “the whole house where they were sitting” (Acts 2:2, ESV). This immediately follows the events of Acts 1, where the disciples had returned to Jerusalem and “went up to the upper room, where they were staying” (Acts 1:13, ESV) to devote themselves to prayer. Due to this narrative continuity and the use of the word “house” (Greek: oikos), many traditional interpretations—including longstanding Christian tradition dating back centuries—place the event in the upper room (also known as the Cenacle) on Mount Zion in Jerusalem. This view sees the outpouring of the Holy Spirit as happening in a private, intimate setting among the approximately 120 believers (Acts 1:15), with the subsequent gathering of the crowd occurring afterward as people heard the commotion from outside.

However, there is significant scholarly debate, with many biblical commentators and historians arguing that the event more likely took place on the Temple Mount, specifically in the spacious Temple courts or near the southern steps.

The key arguments for each viewpoint are outlined below, based on scriptural analysis and historical context.

Arguments for the Upper Room

This is the more traditional interpretation, often depicted in Christian art and teaching. It connects directly to Acts 1:13, where the disciples “went upstairs to the room where they were staying” after Jesus’ ascension, joining in constant prayer with about 120 people (Acts 1:14-15).

The Upper Room and the House Where They Were Sitting

Proponents for the Upper Room point out that the narrative flow suggests continuity. The group remains in this upper room (possibly the same site as the Last Supper in Mark 14:15 or Luke 22:12) until Pentecost arrives 10 days later. The phrase "where they were sitting" (Acts 2:2) is exactly the same in Greek phrase as "where they were staying" (Acts 1:13), and in Acts 1:13, the location is very clearly "the upper room." This view contends there is no discernable "scene (location)-change" between chapter one and chapter two, and Luke is normally very good at indicating such things in the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles for the benefit of his readers.

The posture of "sitting" (Acts 2:2) is atypical for the temple—only the King had the prerogative of sitting in the temple (Mishnah Sotah 7:8; cf. Psalm 24:3; Tosefta Sukkah 3:18; Tosefta Rosh HaShanah 1:12; Tosefta Sanhedrin 4:3).

In Luke's 52 (often very long) chapters in the New Testament, he never uses any version or derivative of the word oikos (Acts 2:2) to refer to the temple, with one notable exception in Acts 7:47. While this usage appears in the speech of Stephen (Acts 7:47), these are Stephen's words and vocabulary—Luke is merely quoting what Stephen said. Also, Stephen is, in turn, reflecting biblical vocabulary as seen in texts like 1 Kings 8:13, and he even quotes Isaiah 66:1-2 where the word "house" is used to refer to the temple (Acts 7:49). But again, this is Stephen and his quoting of and reference to the Old Testament; it is not Luke and his preferred manner of referring to the temple. When Luke is speaking for himself, he uses the term heirus some 41 times and he uses the term oikos zero times when referring to the Temple in Jerusalem.

Consequently, the hermeneutical rule of "Immediate Antecedent" has to be invoked, and that, in turn, takes us directly back to Acts 1:13, "the upper room, where they were staying," and the phrase "upper room" takes us back to Luke 22:12, the original upper room of Jesus last meal / Pasover supper with His disciples.

The Crowds of Pentecost and the Ritual Immersion of the Converts

The intimate setting fits the initial outpouring of the Spirit on the disciples, with the subsequent gathering of a crowd (Acts 2:6) explained as people hearing the commotion from outside and assembling nearby. Logistically, a private house could accommodate the core group, and the miracle of tongues would draw attention regardless of location. Baptism of the 3,000 converts (Acts 2:41) could occur at nearby water sources, without needing Temple facilities (although Temple facilities would not have to necessarily be excluded).

Scholarly Support

The traditional view is supported by early church traditions and some modern commentaries, emphasizing the disciples’ caution after Jesus’ crucifixion.

The traditional view, rooted in early Christian interpretations and the narrative continuity from Acts 1:13 (where the disciples gather in the “upper room”), has been upheld by several scholars and commentators. This perspective often emphasizes the disciples’ caution after Jesus’ crucifixion. This view highlights the intimate setting among the 120 believers and sees the “house” in Acts 2:2 as a residential structure, possibly the same site as the Last Supper (Mark 14:15; Luke 22:12).

In his commentary on the book of Acts, contemporary scholar Dr. Wave Nunnally supports the view that the Spirit descended in the upper room located on the Western Hill (known today as Modern Mt. Zion and in the first century as the Essene Quarter) — the same upper room where Jesus had His last meal/Passover supper with His disciples.

While fewer modern critical scholars explicitly defend this against the Temple alternative, notable supporters include Bargil Pixner, a Benedictine monk and archaeologist who excavated on Mount Zion. He argued that the Cenacle (the traditional upper room site) originated as a first-century Jewish-Christian synagogue, serving as the location for early church gatherings, including the Pentecost outpouring of the Holy Spirit. Pixner tied this to archaeological evidence of pre-Constantinian Christian presence there, viewing it as a continuous site from Jesus’ time.

William Barclay is also a modern scholar who defends the Upper Room as the location of the events of Pentecost. In his Daily Study Bible commentary on Acts 2:1-13, Barclay describes the disciples as gathered “in one place” on Pentecost, implicitly linking it to the upper room from Acts 1 as a private house where they prayed and waited. He focuses on the communal intimacy without challenging the traditional site, portraying it as a fitting, enclosed space for the Spirit’s dramatic arrival.

Other older commentators, such as Matthew Henry (in his 18th-century exposition), also assume the upper room without debate, reinforcing the view through centuries of homiletical tradition. However, even proponents like these often acknowledge logistical challenges (e.g., the crowd’s size and baptisms) without resolving them fully.

Archaeological Evidence for the Cenacle

We will return to comparing the two viewpoints for the location of Day of Pentecost, but a brief mention of the archaeological research at the Cenacle is relevant to the topic. The Cenacle (Latin for "dining room"), also known as the Upper Room, is a historic site on Mount Zion in Jerusalem, traditionally identified as the location of Jesus' Last Supper (Mark 14:12–26; Matthew 26:17–30; Luke 22:7–39; John 13–17), the post-Resurrection appearances (Luke 24:33–53; John 20:19–29), and the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1–4). The current structure is a second-story hall above the traditional Tomb of King David, featuring Gothic rib-vaulting, freestanding columns with Corinthianesque capitals, and later Islamic additions like a mihrab (prayer niche) and Arabic inscriptions from the Ottoman period. Due to its religious sensitivity—shared by Jews (David's Tomb), Christians (Upper Room), and Muslims (part of a former mosque)—full-scale excavations have been limited, relying instead on non-invasive methods like laser scanning, multispectral imaging, and limited probings. Evidence points to a multi-layered history, with the site's veneration dating back to at least the 4th century CE, but no conclusive proof of 1st-century origins.

Key Archaeological Layers and Findings

Archaeological investigations reveal a palimpsest of constructions, with the Cenacle evolving from possible early Christian or Jewish-Christian use into a Byzantine basilica, Crusader church, and Ottoman mosque:

• Pre-Byzantine and Possible 1st-Century Elements:

  
  

  • The lowest courses of ashlar masonry on the north, east, and south walls have been dated by some scholars, like Benedictine archaeologist Bargil Pixner, to the Herodian period (late 1st century BCE to early 1st CE), based on stylistic similarities to Jerusalem's Temple Mount stones. This suggests the building could incorporate foundations from Jesus' era, potentially as a Jewish-Christian synagogue or meeting house.

    
    

  • A 2013 probing by archaeologist Amit Re'em (Israel Antiquities Authority) around the structure found no evidence of pre-4th-century construction, challenging earlier claims. However, limited excavations have reportedly uncovered 1st-century Judean building blocks beneath the Crusader layers, along with carbonized wood dated via optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to the first half of the 1st century CE. These findings remain preliminary and unverified through peer-reviewed digs, as no comprehensive excavation has occurred at the site itself.

    
    

• Byzantine Period (4th–7th Centuries CE):

  
  

  • The structure likely formed part of the Hagia Sion basilica, commissioned by Emperor Theodosius I around 379–381 CE and depicted on the 6th-century Madaba Map mosaic as a red-roofed building south of the main basilica. Early pilgrim accounts, such as the Bordeaux Itinerarium (333 CE), describe a "synagogue" on the site, possibly an early Christian gathering place.

    
    

  • A 2019 Israel Antiquities Authority project used laser scanning and 3D modeling to peel back later layers, revealing Byzantine foundations beneath the Crusader vaulting. Hidden symbols, including the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) and the Lion of Judah (linked to King David), emerged, supporting its early Christian significance. Artistic evidence, like a 4th-century sculpture and a 6th-century Italian drawing, shows a sloping red-roofed structure on Mount Zion consistent with biblical descriptions.

    
    

• Crusader and Medieval Periods (12th–16th Centuries CE):

  
  

  • The present Gothic hall was rebuilt by Crusaders around the 12th century (possibly pre-1187 or after 1229 under Frederick II), incorporating earlier Byzantine elements. Features like the vaulted bays and capitals reflect Jerusalem's 12th-century workshops or southern Italian influences.

    
    

  • In April 2025, an international team from the Austrian Academy of Sciences and Israel Antiquities Authority used ultraviolet filters, Reflectance Transformation Imaging, and multispectral photography to uncover nearly 30 hidden inscriptions and nine drawings on the plastered walls—marks from the 14th–16th centuries previously obscured during restorations. These include multilingual pilgrim graffiti in Armenian, Arabic, Latin, and Greek, such as an Armenian "Christmas 1300" (marking a visit by King Het’um II), coats of arms from European nobles (e.g., Swiss knight Adrian I von Bubenberg), and an Arabic scorpion symbol honoring Sheikh Aḥmad al-ʿAǧamī during the 1523 Ottoman conversion to a mosque. The finds highlight the site's role as a medieval pilgrimage hub for diverse Christians, underscoring its continuous veneration but not its 1st-century authenticity.

    
    

• Ottoman and Later Periods (16th Century–Present):

  
  

  • Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent converted the hall into a mosque in 1524, adding a qubba (dome) over the stairs, a minaret, and Arabic inscriptions. Franciscans regained partial custody in 1831.

    
    

  • A December 2024 discovery on Mount Zion (near the Cenacle) of a 16th-century Chinese porcelain bowl fragment with an inscription offers tangential evidence of global pilgrimage networks but does not directly relate to the structure.

    
    

Scholarly Debates and Conclusions

Scholars are divided on the Cenacle's authenticity as the biblical Upper Room. Proponents like Bargil Pixner and David Christian Clausen argue for continuity from a 1st-century Jewish-Christian synagogue, citing Herodian masonry, early art, and maps as circumstantial evidence of apostolic-era use. They view it as a "spiritual crossroads" reflecting sacred reuse across religions.

Critics, including Joan Taylor, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, and authors of recent analyses, emphasize the lack of direct 1st-century artifacts or architecture (e.g., no benches or columns typical of early synagogues). The site's 4th-century Byzantine origins suggest it became holy through tradition rather than historical continuity, possibly conflated with nearby David's Tomb (biblically located in the City of David, not Mount Zion). Alternative sites, like the Monastery of Saint Mark in the Old City, feature early Christian inscriptions supporting rival claims.

Overall, while the Cenacle boasts a rich archaeological record of layered reverence from the Byzantine era onward, definitive evidence for its role in New Testament events remains elusive without further non-invasive or permitted excavations. The 2025 inscription discoveries enhance our understanding of its medieval pilgrimage history but do little to resolve the 1st-century debate. Ongoing research, including 3D modeling, continues to refine this picture.

Arguments for the Temple Mount Area

An alternative perspective, gaining traction in some biblical scholarship, argues that the events shifted to the Temple area by Pentecost morning. This view sees “house” as a common biblical metaphor for the Temple (e.g., “house of God” in 2 Samuel 7:5, 1 Kings 8:10-11, or Isaiah 56:7, where the Lord calls it “my house”).

The Upper Room

The Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts record that after Jesus ascended to heaven, His followers remained in Jerusalem, with the temple at the heart of their activities (Luke 24:52-53; Acts 3:1). Luke recounts that on “the day of Pentecost” (the biblical feast of weeks, Shavuot, see Exodus 34:22; Leviticus 23:15-16; Numbers 28:26), the followers of Jesus gathered together (Acts 2:1), but he never specified the location of their gathering. Christian tradition came to identify the location for the disciples’ gathering on the day of Pentecost as the same place where Jesus celebrated the Passover meal with His disciples, within the upper city of Jerusalem. These traditions, however, do not predate the fifth century AD during the Byzantine period. Luke and Mark describe the location of the Last Supper as “a large upper room” (ἀνάγαιον; anagaion: Luke 22:12; Mark 14:15), which seems similar to Luke’s description of the place where the disciples gathered after Jesus’ ascension, an “upper room” (ὑπερῷον; hyperoon: Acts 1:13).

In spite of the general similarity between these locations, the Greek terms used by Luke to describe both are different, which doesn’t assume they were the same place. The Latin translation of the New Testament, however, translated the different Greek words with the same Latin word cenaculum (the basis for the modern name of "Cenacle"). Based, then, upon the Latin translation, Christians, beginning in the fifth century, identified the location of the Last Supper as the same place as the upper room in Acts 1. Even if the room of the Last Supper was the same “upper room” in Acts 1 where the disciples met, the narrative of Acts doesn’t suggest that the followers of Jesus remained in the upper room for the events recounted in Acts 2. In fact, the Greek syntax at the beginning of the second chapter of Acts preserves a Hebraic-styled narrative break, “And when the day of Pentecost came,” which separates what follows from everything that had previously occurred.[1] In other words, the narrative of Acts 2 indicates that the followers of Jesus had moved in time and location from the first chapter of Acts. So, where, then, did the events in Acts 2 take place?

The House Where They Were Sitting

The word “house” in Acts 2:2 is often used in Scripture to refer to the Temple as the “house of God” (e.g., 2 Samuel 7:5; Acts 7:47), not necessarily a residential building. Luke’s mention of “the house where they were sitting” (Acts 2:2) has suggested to many that the disciples gathered in the upper room mentioned in Acts 1:13. It seems more probable that Luke’s language reflects a manner of speaking within Judaism about the temple of Jerusalem, i.e., “house (בית; bayit) of the LORD.”[2] Within ancient Jewish sources, and even until today, the Temple Mount in Jerusalem is referred to in Hebrew as הַר הַבַּיִת (har habayit; lit. “the mountain of the house”; see m. Bikkurim 3:4). Pilgrims in the first century entered the Temple Mount from the south. Remains of the southern gates used by pilgrims can still be seen in Jerusalem, outlined today by a Double and Triple Gate. The Triple Gate lies approximately 100 meters to the east of the Double Gate. The Mishnah described pilgrims entering and exiting the Temple Mount through these gates; it’s important to note how it speaks about the Temple Mount and the temple:

In the first part of the book of Acts, Luke’s Greek narrative frequently preserves Hebraic-styled syntax and idiom; thus, the mention of the “house” in Acts 2:2 likely reflects his preservation of the Hebrew idiom that identified the temple as “the house.” The location of the events in Acts 2 upon the Temple Mount in Jerusalem seems certain in light of the festival of Pentecost, the crowds encountered by the disciples, and the ritual immersion of the large crowd that repented.

The Festival of Pentecost

“Pentecost,” which means “the fiftieth day,” was the name used by Greek-speaking Jews for the harvest festival known in Hebrew as Shavu’ot, the Feast of Weeks (Exodus 23:16; 34:22; Deuteronomy 16:9-10, 16; 2 Chronicles 8:13). Originally, Shavu’ot was a “day of the firstfruits” (Numbers 28:26) of the wheat harvest (Exodus 34:22). The festival occurred fifty days (hence Pentecost) after Passover. In the first century, the Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes all differed in how they determined the fifty days, and thus, when the festival should be celebrated.

After Jesus ascended to heaven, His disciples remained in Jerusalem and “were continually in the temple blessing God” (Luke 24:52-53). Clearly, Jesus’ followers didn’t interpret any of His actions prior to and including His crucifixion as either rejecting the temple or rendering it obsolete. We should assume, then, that Jesus’ followers would have participated in the pilgrim festival of Pentecost in accordance with the commandment of God: “Three times a year all your males shall appear before the LORD your God at the place which he will choose: at the feast of unleavened bread (Passover), at the feast of weeks (Pentecost), and at the feast of booths (Sukkot)” (Deuteronomy 16:16; see Exodus 23:17; 34:23; Philo: Special Laws 1.69-70; and Acts 20:16).

During the first century, the yearly requirement to appear in Jerusalem for the festivals only applied to those living in the land of Israel (Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 4.203) due to practical issues; however, many Jews living outside the land of Israel made the festival pilgrimages to Jerusalem (Josephus, Wars of the Jews 5.199). The first-century Jewish historian Josephus mentions that the population of Jerusalem swelled at Pentecost as Jewish pilgrims came from all over the countryside (Wars of the Jews 1.253; cf. 2 Maccabees 12:31-32; Wars of the Jews 2.42; Antiquities of the Jews 3.252-254; 13.252; and 17.254). Luke also attests to the multitudes of Jewish pilgrims gathered in Jerusalem for the festival of Pentecost: “Parthians and Medes and Elamites and residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and parts of Libya belonging to Cyrene, and visitors from Rome” (Acts 2:9-11). Peter addressed these crowds of pilgrims who were participating in the festival, which took place in the temple.[3]

In later Jewish tradition, Jews identified the festival of Pentecost as the time when God gave the Torah to Israel on Mount Sinai (see Exodus 19:1; 2 Chronicles 15:10-12). While it is unclear how widespread this tradition was in the first century, some Jewish communities identified Pentecost as a date for the renewal of the Sinai covenant (Book of Jubilees 1:1; 6:17-19; 14:20; 22:1-6; 1QS 1:8-2:25; 4Q280; 4Q86; 4Q287). Within Luke’s description of the phenomena that occurred among Jesus’ disciples on the day of Pentecost, he drew strong connections with God’s appearance on Sinai (Exodus 19): noise, wind, and fire. The first-century Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria describes the event at Sinai as follows:

Philo’s description of God’s appearance on Mount Sinai shares further similarities with Luke’s account of the day of Pentecost, particularly the language and tongues of fire. Luke sought to make a connection between the event he described in Acts 2 and God’s appearance on Mount Sinai, and as Peter’s sermon to the crowd shows, the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Moses’ wish, “Would that all the LORD’s people were prophets, and that the LORD would put His spirit on them” (Numbers 11:29), as well as testifying that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah promised by God.

So why did Luke draw a connection between the day of Pentecost and the theophany on Sinai? It was assumed within Jewish tradition that the first redemption, the exodus from Egypt, prefigured the future redemption God would bring about for His people. Luke tied the events that happened on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2) with God’s appearance on Sinai (the first redemption) to signal that with the ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus, God had begun the final redemption as proven through the outpouring of His Spirit, which testifies to the Messiahship of Jesus.

Pentecost commemorates both the ratification of God’s first national covenant with Israel with Moses receiving the Law at Mount Sinai and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in Jerusalem 1,500 years later on Mount Zion. Consequently, Pentecost is the “birthday” season of both of God’s covenant nations, the natural Israel and spiritual Israel. As it was during the first Pentecost experience by Mount Sinai at the “birthing” of the Hebrew nation, a second supernatural experience now accompanied the “birth” of a new Hebraic movement that will change the world forever. This time, it was not the giving of the Law, but the giving of the Spirit which launched the spreading of the good news of God’s salvation to all mankind. A new nation, a “spiritual Israel,” was born out of the original people group, though not without difficult birth pangs. This new community of faith in the Messiah, rooted in Hebraic tradition and spiritual fruits, soon spread across the world, reaching every nation with the saving message of the God of Israel.

As the Apostles’ message spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, it did so by the power and influence of God’s Holy Spirit. The new community of faith which centered upon the Messiah of Israel became unstoppable as it grew beyond Jerusalem and spread to Judea, Samaria, the Middle East, Asia Minor, and across Europe to the ends of the earth. Isaiah’s ancient prophecy began to be realized on earth, saying, “… For I will pour water on him who is thirsty, and floods on the dry ground; I will pour My Spirit on your descendants, and My blessing on your offspring…” (Isaiah 44:3). In Ezekiel (36:27) God promised, saying, “I will put My Spirit within you…,”. In Zechariah (12:10) God assures all future generations that a time will come when “… I will pour on the house of David and on the inhabitants of Jerusalem the Spirit of grace and supplication; then they will look on Me whom they pierced … they will mourn for Him as one mourns for his only son …” And while most Bible students associate this prophecy with Israel’s final salvation at the Messiah’s return, it certainly had its beginnings at that First Century Pentecost in Jerusalem.

The Crowds of Pentecost and the Ritual Immersion of the Converts

The crowds of Jewish pilgrims from all over the Roman world heard the disciples speaking in their own languages and were amazed (Acts 2:4-8). In response to their amazement, Peter stood and addressed the crowd (Acts 2:14-39) proclaiming Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah of Israel and identifying what the pilgrims saw and heard as the “pouring out” of the Holy Spirit. This signified the advent of the Messianic era, so Peter called upon the people “to repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus” (Acts 2:38). Peter’s discourse and the events that precipitated it suggest a public location; moreover, the only place in Jerusalem where such crowds would have gathered on the day of Pentecost would be the Temple Mount.[4]

According to the book of Acts, those who responded to Peter’s call “to repent and be baptized” were about 3,000 people (Acts 2:41). For 3,000 to be saved, a crowd of at least 30,000, up to 100,000 would likely have assembled. The Jewish historian Josephus and others estimate that hundreds of thousands gathered in Jerusalem during the holy feasts. This large multitude could not fit in or around the Upper Room which likely was at or near capacity with 120 people (Acts 1:15).

The Upper Room was in a densely populated residential area of Jerusalem. It had narrow streets and many buildings. A multitude of people couldn't gather in this area as the narrow streets and buildings would have made this virtually impossible. Due to the narrow streets and buildings around the Upper Room, Peter could have only preached to several hundred people at best. There was no reason for a multitude of people to be in the residential area by the Upper Room as it was not in an area of public interest. The Temple Mount was the center of public activity, especially during the holy feasts.

The ritual immersion pools (miqva’ot) located around the southern and southwestern portions of the Temple Mount offer the only place in Jerusalem able to accommodate the ritual immersion of so many people.[5] These ritual pools serviced the pilgrims entering the temple (see Luke 2:22; Acts 21:24) and could accommodate the swollen masses of pilgrims who converged on the temple during the festivals. The most practical setting for such a series of events on the festival of Pentecost would be in the vicinity of the temple in Jerusalem. The Upper Room is located in the southwest corner of Jerusalem, over one-half mile (0.83 kilometers) from the Temple Mount, most likely too far away for a large crowd to go to for baptisms, etc.[6]

When the temple stood, the Jewish people identified it as the dwelling place of God’s presence, i.e., His Holy Spirit, what rabbinic tradition called the Shekhinah. It makes perfect sense that the manifestation of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost would occur in relationship with the temple in Jerusalem (see Joel 3:5). Moreover, Jewish tradition believed that the Holy Spirit manifested itself among those sitting together (Acts 2:2) studying Torah (see m. Avot 3:2; and b. Berachot 6a). During the days of the Second Temple, the Temple Mount served as a center for the study of the Torah (see Antiquities of the Jews 17:140-163; Luke 2:48-49, 21:37; t. Sanhedrin 7:1; t. Hagigah 2:9; m. Yoma 7:1; m. Sotah 7:7-8; and b. Pesahim 26a). That the disciples were seated indicates that they were studying the Torah, and possibly the words of Jesus (Matthew 18:20), as they gathered “together in one place” when they received the Holy Spirit (see m. Bikkurim 1:6; t. Sotah 15:12).[7] According to Jewish tradition, God gave Moses the Torah on the festival of Pentecost[8] (Book of Jubilees 1:1),[9] which explains the appearance of many of the Sinai motifs, e.g., fire, wind, and languages,[10] in Luke’s description of the manifestation of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. All the events of Acts 2 occurred in a public setting; given the date of Pentecost, the only natural location for these events to take place was the temple in Jerusalem – the House of the Lord.

Symbolic Parallels

The wind, fire, and filling of the house echo Temple dedications, like fire from heaven and God’s glory filling Solomon’s Temple (2 Chronicles 7:1-3; 1 Kings 8:10-11). Peter’s reference to David’s tomb (Acts 2:29) places them near the City of David, adjacent to the Temple Mount.

The Time of the Day

When the Holy Spirit fell, people thought the apostles were drunk (Acts 2:13), but Peter reminds them that it was only the third hour of the day (9 am) (Acts 2:14-15). The time of day could be an important clue as to the location of the event, as it would be the time for the morning prayer at the Temple. The disciples regularly went to the Temple during the times of prayer (Acts 3:1). Therefore, the apostles and disciples were most likely on the Temple Mount when Pentecost happened.

Scholarly Support

A growing consensus among contemporary biblical scholars and archaeologists favors the Temple Mount—likely in areas like Solomon’s Portico, the Royal Stoa, or near the southern steps—for its alignment with Jewish festival practices, the text’s references to crowds and the “third hour” (Acts 2:15, coinciding with Temple sacrifices), abundant mikvahs for baptisms, and the term “house” as a biblical idiom for the Temple (e.g., Acts 7:47). This view sees Acts 2 as a public, theologically symbolic shift from the physical Temple to a spiritual one.

Key supporters include F.F. Bruce. In The Book of the Acts (NICNT), Bruce explicitly states that the “one place” in Acts 2:1 “seems to be the temple,” cross-referencing Acts 2:46 where believers meet there daily. He argues the event’s scale and timing fit the Temple’s public spaces better than a private room.

In The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament and his multi-volume Acts commentary, Craig S. Keener supports the Temple Mount by highlighting archaeological features like ritual baths (mikvahs) essential for the 3,000 baptisms (Acts 2:41), which were plentiful there but absent in typical homes. He views the Pentecost narrative as fulfilling Jewish festival expectations at the Temple. Marc Turnage, in Windows into the Bible: Cultural & Historical Insights from the Bible for Modern Readers, supports the same viewpoint.

Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, an archaeologist and author of The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide, provides evidence against an early-date Cenacle (upper room) via excavations showing its fourth-century origins. He favors the Temple courts for Pentecost, citing the site’s capacity for diverse crowds “from every nation” (Acts 2:5).

In his BiblePlaces analysis, Chris McKinny deems the Temple Mount “much more likely” for the entire Acts 2 event, citing Keener on baptisms and Leen Ritmeyer on Temple infrastructure. He critiques upper-room theories using data from excavators like Amit Re’em.

Lois Tverberg, a scholar of Jewish context in the New Testament (Our Rabbi Jesus), she argues Pentecost (Shavuot) required Temple attendance (Deuteronomy 16:16), making the courts the logical site for the Spirit’s outpouring amid pilgrims, rather than a secluded room.

Additional voices include David Guzik (Enduring Word Commentary), who specifies the “temple courts” with colonnades, and Natan from Hoshana Rabbah, who pinpoints Solomon’s Portico based on Josephus and its role in early gatherings (Acts 3:11; 5:12).

This scholarly shift reflects interdisciplinary work combining textual, historical, and archaeological data, though the Bible’s ambiguity allows ongoing debate.

Harmonizing the Viewpoints

A combined perspective might address the challenges presented by the two viewpoints. One potential solution is that the Day of Pentecost, as depicted in Acts 2, started in the Upper Room (or a similar private residence) and then moved to the Temple Courts. This combined scenario aligns more effectively with the biblical text, Jewish festival traditions, and archaeological evidence than considering either location alone.

One possible sequence of events follows. Note that this scenario is not the only way to combine the two viewpoints, but only serves as an example:

1. The initial outpouring of the Holy Spirit—with wind, fire, and tongues—occurred in a private upper room, among the 120 gathered in prayer (Acts 2:1–4).

   
   

   1. The disciples were "all together in one place" (Acts 2:1), and the sound of wind filled "the house where they were sitting" (Acts 2:2).

      
      

   2. This directly follows Acts 1:13–15, where the 120 believers were praying in "the upper room" in Jerusalem.

      
      

   3. The Greek word oikos (house) typically refers to a private dwelling, not the Temple (which is usually hieron or naos).

      
      

   4. Early Christian tradition (e.g., 4th-century pilgrims) consistently identified this as the Cenacle on Mount Zion.

   
   

2. The public response, preaching, and baptisms occurred in the Temple Courts, likely near Solomon’s Portico or the southern gates (Acts 2:5-41).

   
   

   1. A massive crowd gathered "at once" (Acts 2:6), drawn by the sound and the disciples speaking in tongues.

      
      

   2. This crowd was multinational ("devout men from every nation under heaven" – Acts 2:5), fitting the pilgrim crowds at the Temple during Shavuot (Pentecost).

      
      

   3. Peter preached at "the third hour of the day" (9 a.m.)—the exact time of the morning Temple sacrifice and prayer service.

      
      

   4. 3,000 were baptized that day (Acts 2:41)—requiring mikvahs (ritual baths), which were abundant at the Temple’s southern steps but absent in private homes.

      
      

   5. The believers continued "day by day, attending the temple together" (Acts 2:46), showing the Temple was their central hub.

Why a Combined View Makes the Most Sense

Scholarly Support for the Combined View

• Craig S. Keener (Acts: An Exegetical Commentary):

• F.F. Bruce (The Book of Acts, NICNT):

• Ben Witherington III (The Acts of the Apostles):

• David G. Peterson (The Acts of the Apostles, PNTC):

The Peculiar Number of Converts

Before wrapping up this article, it's worth noting the number of converts. Approximately 3,000 people responded to Peter’s call to “repent and be baptized” (Acts 2:41). The number 3,000 is significant. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt, it’s estimated that their journey to Mount Sinai took 50 days, during which they were guided by fire from heaven.

While Moses was conversing with God and receiving the 10 Commandments, the people turned to idolatry. Upon his return, Moses purified the camp by instructing the sons of Levi to slay the idolaters. It was a harsh action, and the scriptures state that about 3,000 people died that day (Exodus 32:28). Now, at the first Pentecost following Jesus' ascension, fire descends from heaven, and about 3,000 people repent and are baptized!

Can you see the remarkable work of God in all of this? God is the God of exchanges! He transforms ashes into beauty and turns death into life.

Conclusion

In conclusion, although the upper room is traditionally favored due to its narrative closeness in Acts 1-2, the Temple Mount interpretation is strongly supported by festival laws, crowd logistics, and biblical symbolism. The text itself is ambiguous, leading to varying interpretations based on scholarly focus—no single location is definitively established. If you are examining a particular translation or commentary, it may lean towards one interpretation.

The combined perspective might best account for the text, Jewish context, archaeology, and narrative progression. It illustrates a private divine encounter evolving into a public declaration—a suitable beginning for the Church.

God had promised to dwell among His people in the Tabernacle and later the Temple, but the ultimate aim was for God's presence to transition from a physical Tabernacle/Temple to believers as a "spiritual temple/house" (1 Corinthians 3:16-17; 2 Corinthians 6:16; 1 Peter 2:4-6; Ephesians 2:19-22). Praise God for His indwelling presence!

References

1. Marc Turnage, Windows into the Bible: Cultural & Historical Insights from the Bible for Modern Readers (Springfield, MO: Logion Press, 2016)

   
   

2. Wave E. Nunnally, A Commentary on the Book of Acts (Springfield, MO: Logion Press, 2007)

   
   

3. Sar-El Tour & Conferences: Pentecost in Jerusalem | What Happened on that Special Day (https://sareltours.com/article/pentecost-in-jerusalem)

   
   

4. Holy Land Site: Temple Mount & Pentecost (https://www.holylandsite.com/temple-mount-pentecost)

   
   

5. Jeff Polen Music: Blog | The Southern Steps #SonlifeIsrael2017 (https://jeffpolenmusic.com/2017/10/25/the-southern-steps-sonlifeisrael2017/)

Endnotes

[1] F. Blass and A. Debrunner, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1975), 208.

[2] Cited from Deuteronomy 23:17; 1 Samuel 1:24; 3:15; 1 Kings 3:1; 6:37; 7:12; 9:1; Isaiah 2:2; 37:1; 66:20; Jeremiah 7:2; 17:26; 19:14. Usually the Jerusalem temple is identified throughout the Old Testament as the “house of the LORD.” Even in the New Testament, the Temple is referred to as “house” (John 2:17; Matthew 21:12-13).

[3] Shmuel Safrai, “Religion in Everyday Life,” in The Jewish People in the First Century: Historical Geography, Political History, Social, Cultural and Religious Life and Institutions (Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum; vol. 2; Van Gorcum: Assen, 1976), 810; and idem, “The Temple,” in The Jewish People in the First Century, 893-894.

[4] See Rainey and Notley, The Sacred Bridge, (Jerusalem: Carta, 2006), 370.

[5] In recent years, a large number of Jewish ritual immersion pools have been uncovered in excavations around the Temple Mount in Jerusalem; see Hillel Geva, “Jerusalem. The Temple Mount and Its Environs,” in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land (ed. E. Stern; vol. 2; The Israel Exploration Society: Jerusalem, 1993), 739-740. In 2004, the Pool of Siloam (John 9:7) was uncovered south of the Temple Mount. This large pool served as a ritual immersion pool for pilgrims during the Jewish festivals; see Ronny Reich, Excavating the City of David: Where Jerusalem’s History Began (Israel Exploration Society: Jerusalem, 2011), 225-244, 328-333.

[6] There is not really a water source near the Upper Room. Perhaps they walked down to the Pool of Siloam and were baptized there, but it is more likely that these 3,000 new believers were baptized in the large number of ritual immersion pools around the Temple Mount.

[7] The disciples would not have been praying as Jews prayed standing, not sitting. Sitting was the posture for Torah study.

[8] Jewish tradition also identifies Pentecost as the day upon which David was born and died (Ruth Rabbah 1:17; y. Bezah 2, 61b; see Acts 2:29).

[9] The Book of Jubilees also connects the festival of Pentecost with the covenant God made with Noah in Genesis 9 (Book of Jubilees 6:17-19). The Qumran community annually renewed the covenant, in which they brought into the community new initiates, at the festival of Pentecost.

[10] The school of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the verse, “And like a hammer that breaks the rock in pieces” (Jeremiah 23:29) as, “Just as a hammer is divided into many sparks, so every single word that went forth from the Holy One (i.e., at Sinai), blessed be He, split up into seventy languages (i.e., the languages of the nations of the world; see Acts 2:5-11)” (b. Shabbath 88b).In his commentary on the book of Acts, contemporary scholar Dr. Wave Nunnally advocates the view that the Spirit descended in the upper room located on the Western Hill (known today as Modern Mt. Zion and referred to in the first century as the Essene Quarter) - the same upper room where Jesus had his last meal or Passover supper with His disciples.