A Chronological Timeline of the Holy Land

An Overview to the Archaeological and Historical Periods of the Holy Land

Introduction

When accompanying a guide on an itinerary through Israel, historical sites are typically contextualized within distinct chronological eras. Many prominent locations feature overlapping layers of significance, with key historical events occurring across various periods. Developing a foundational understanding of these major historical periods will significantly enhance your comprehension and enrich your overall experience.

Notes:

Biblical archaeology periods are primarily organized using the Near Eastern Three-Age System (Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) combined with later historical eras.
The dates presented are approximate, and interpretations will vary among archaeologists, historians, and biblical scholars. The date ranges, specific dates, and associated events are open to debate, particularly concerning the archaeological Stone Age Period and the corresponding biblical Canaanite Period. This timeline is subject to change as ongoing research continues to provide new insights.
When the abbreviation "c." (or "ca.") precedes a year in history or writing, it stands for the Latin word circa, which means "around" or "approximately."

ARCHAELOGY PERIODS	BIBLICAL PERIODS & SIGNIFICANT EVENTS
STONE AGE (? - c. 3300 BC)	Beginning Before Time – In the beginning was the Word At or Before c. 4000 BC – The Creation Canaanite Period (c. 4000 – 1875 BC) c. 4000 BC – Canaanites inhabit the land of Israel. c. 2500 BC – Noah and the Great Flood. c. 2233 BC – Tower of Babel c. 1960 BC – Abraham is born. Later, moves to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldeans. c. 1875 BC – Jacob and his family move to Egypt to live with Joseph.
Paleolithic (Before c. 8000 BC) Neolithic (c. 8000 - 4300 BC) Chalcolithic / Copper (c. 4300 - 3300 BC) The overall Stone Age marked the advent of agriculture, and tools evolved to support farming and domestic needs. Humans establish permanent settlements, domesticate animals, and develop pottery. The Chalcolithic / Copper Age marked the transition period where early copper metallurgy emerges alongside continued stone tool use.


BRONZE AGE (c. 3300 - 1200 BC)
Early Bronze (c. 3300 – 2100 BC) The rise of early urban civilizations, city-states, and the first empires in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Middle Bronze (c. 2100 – 1550 BC) The Period of the Patriarchs in biblical tradition (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob). Characterized by highly fortified cities and trade networks.
Late Bronze (c. 1550 – 1200 BC) The era of Egyptian dominance over Canaan, the Egyptian Sojourn, and the Exodus.	Israelite Period (c. 1450 – 970 BC) c. 1446 BC – Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. c. 1406 BC – Nation of Israel enters the Promised Land. c. 1043 BC – King Saul becomes the first king of Israel. c. 1010 – 970 BC – King David's reign. First Temple Period (c. 970 – 586 BC) c. 970–931 BC – King Solomon’s reign. Golden years of the Kingdom of Israel. c. 959 BC – Solomon completes the magnificent temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem (the same place Abraham intended to sacrifice Isaac). c. 931 BC – The Kingdom of Israel divides because of Solomon’s sins. Jeroboam reigns over the northern Kingdom of Israel from Samaria. Rehoboam reigns over the southern Kingdom of Israel from Jerusalem. c. 722 BC – Assyrians conquer and deport most of the northern Kingdom of Israel to Assyria. c. 586 BC – Babylonians conquer Jerusalem and Judah under Nebuchadnezzar II. Jerusalem and the First Temple are destroyed and most of the southern Kingdom of Judah is deported to Babylon.
IRON AGE (c. 1200 – 586 BC)
Iron Age I (c. 1200 – 1000 BC) The era of the Period of the Judges and the settlement of the Israelites and Philistines in Canaan.
Iron Age IIA (c. 1000 – 925 BC) The United Monarchy under Kings Saul, David, and Solomon.
Iron Age IIB-IIC (c. 925 – 586 BC) The Divided Monarchy. The era of the northern Kingdom of Israel (ending with the Assyrian conquest in 722 BCE) and the southern Kingdom of Judah.
HISTORICAL & CLASSICAL PERIODS
Babylonian Period (c. 586 – 539 BC) Begins with the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem and the Babylonian Exile.	Second Temple Period (c. 538 – 444 BC) c. 539 BC – Many Jews return from Babylon; the rebuilding of the Second Temple begins under the leadership of Zerubbabel. c. 515 BC – Completion and dedication of the Temple. c. 458 BC – Ezra returns to Jerusalem with a second wave of Jews and begins his reforms. c. 444 BC – Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem as governor of Judah and begins to rebuild the city walls.
Persian Period (c. 539 – 332 BC) The return of the exiles under Cyrus the Great and the construction of the Second Temple.
Hellenistic Period (c. 332 – 63 BC) The era of Greek influence following the conquests of Alexander the Great. It encompasses the Intertestamental Period and the Maccabean Revolt.	Hellenistic Period (Greek Rule) (c. 333 – 167 BC) c. 333 BC – Alexander the Great defeats the Persian Empire and sets out to conquer the world. 323 BC – Alexander suddenly dies and the Greek Empire was divided into several successor states. During this period, the Bible was translated into Greek (the Septuagint). c. 323 - 200 BC – The land of Israel is under control of the family of Ptolemies (a Greek general of Alexander's), who ruled Egypt from Alexandria. c. 200 – The land of Israel comes under the control of the Seleucids (who ruled in Antioch of Syria), who defeated the Ptolemies at the battle of Banias (Caesarea Philippi, northern Israel). Hasmonean Period (Maccabean Rule) (c. 167–63 BC) c. 167 BC – Religious persecutions of Antiochus IV "Epiphanes" and the beginning of the Hasmonean Revolt. When the Jews were prohibited from practicing Judaism, and their temple was desecrated as part of an effort to impose Greek-oriented culture and customs on the entire population, the Jews revolted. First led by Mattathias of the priestly Hasmonean family and then by his son Judah the Maccabee, the Jews subsequently entered Jerusalem and purified (rededicated) the temple. This purification of the temple is commemorated by the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah (164 BC).
Roman Period (c. 63 BC – 324 AD) The era of Roman rule, including the life of Jesus, the beginning of Christianity, and the destruction of the Second Temple (70 AD).	Roman Period (Roman Rule) (c. 63 BC – 324 AD) c. 63 BC – Judea (the land of Israel) comes under Roman Rule as the Roman general Pompey captures Jerusalem and establishes vassal kings. c. 37 BC – 4 BC – Herod, Roman vassal king, rules the Land of Israel. He enlarges the Temple Mount and rebuilds the temple. He also builds other monumental projects, including Caesarea Maritima, Herodian, Cave of the Patriarchs, and Masada. c. 4 BC – Jesus is born in Bethlehem. c. 27–30 AD – Ministry of Jesus. c. 30 AD – Jesus crucified. c. 66 - 73 AD – The First Jewish revolt against the Romans. c. 70 AD – Destruction of Jerusalem and Second Temple. c. 74 AD – Fall of Masada. c. 90 AD – The council of Jamnia (Yavneh). c. 132 - 135 AD – Bar Kokhba Revolt. Roman Emperor Hadrian destroyed Jerusalem, rebuilt it, and named it Aelia (the emperor’s family name) Capitolina (cult of the Capitoline Triad, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), a pagan city. Many holy sites were preserved, but they also contained pagan shrines. He also renamed the country of Israel to Palestine, a name derived from the Philistines. Hadrian did this in an attempt to remove any association the Jews had with their land. c. 200 AD – The writing (codification) of the Mishnah.
Byzantine Period (c. 324 – 640 AD) The Christianization of the Roman Empire, leading to extensive church building and Christian pilgrimage in the Holy Land. The Byzantine era spans from Emperor Constantine I transferred the Roman capital to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul), until the collapse of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453 AD. While the empire endured for over a millennium, its sovereignty over the region of modern-day Israel lasted approximately three centuries, concluding with the Islamic conquest of the Holy Land. During the subsequent period, numerous churches and monasteries were destroyed by Persian and Islamic forces, with large-scale reconstruction delayed until the arrival of the Crusaders.	Byzantine Period (Eastern Roman Empire Rule in Israel) (c. 324 – 614 AD) c. 313 – Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity (Edict of Milan). He later converted to Christianity. c. 326 – Constantine’s mother, Helena, goes to the Holy Land and builds many churches and basilicas on holy sites. c. 380 AD – Edict of Thessalonica declared that Christianity was the only official religion of the Roman Empire. Persian Period (c. 614 – 628 AD) c. 614 – Persian conquest of the Holy Land. Many churches and monasteries were destroyed. Byzantines Recapture Israel (c. 628 – 638 AD) c. 628 – Holy Land recaptured by the Byzantines.
Early Arab (c. 640 - 1099 AD) Expansion of the Islamic caliphates (Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, etc) into the Middle East, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula.	Muslim Period (c. 638 – 661 AD) c. 638 – Muslim conquest of the Holy Land completed. Their rule originated from Damascus, then Baghdad, and subsequently from Egypt. Umayyad (Muslim) Period (c. 661 – 750 AD) c. 691 – Where the First and Second Temples were located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock was built by Caliph Abd el-Malik. Abbasid (Muslim) Period (c. 750 – 969 AD) c. 750 AD – Jerusalem and surrounding areas experienced relatively stable but indirect rule, with less imperial attention than under the Umayyads. Fatimid (Muslim) Period (c. 969 – 1099 AD) c. 1009 AD – The Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of numerous Christian shrines in the Holy Land, most notably the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. This event caused widespread outrage across Western Christendom. This desecration served as the catalyst for the Papacy to launch the Crusades, culminating in the European military campaigns to seize control of the Holy Land.
Crusader Period (c. 1099 - 1299 AD) An era of religious wars initiated by Western European Christians, sanctioned by the Papacy, to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control.	Crusader Period (c. 1099 – 1291 AD) c. 1099 – In response to the destruction of many churches in the Holy Land by the Muslims in 1009 AD, the Crusaders (Catholic armies from Rome) conquered Jerusalem and many parts of Israel. c. 1147 – Second Crusade arrives in the Holy Land. c. 1187 – Destruction of the Crusader army by Muslim leader Saladin. The collapse of the Crusader Kingdom begins. c. 1265 – Mamelukes, led by Sultan Beybars, conquer the Holy Land. c. 1270 – Final Crusade arrives, and all its participants are massacred. c. 1291 – The Last Crusader stronghold of Acco was taken, ending Crusader rule.
Late Arab (c. 1299 - 1518 AD) Regional domination of the Mamluk Sultanate, which succeeded the Crusaders and Ayyubids, and lasted until the Ottoman conquest.	Mamluk (Muslim) Period (c. 1291 – 1517 AD) c. 1291 – Mamluk rule begins. c. 1333 – Franciscan Order established in Jerusalem. Its members care for holy places and pilgrims. By the end of the Middle Ages, the country’s urban centers were virtually in ruins, most of Jerusalem was abandoned, and the small Jewish community was poverty-stricken. Political and economic upheavals, plagues, locust invasions, and devastating earthquakes darkened the period of Mamluk decline.
Turkish Period (c. 1518 - 1918) The Ottoman empire, created by Turkish tribes in Anatolia (Asia Minor), grew to be one of the most powerful states in the world	Ottoman (Muslim) Period (c. 1517–1917 AD) c. 1517 – Following the Ottoman conquest in 1517, the land was divided into four districts and administratively attached to the province of Damascus, with rule from Istanbul. c. 1537 – Suleiman the Magnificent rebuilds the city walls of Jerusalem. c. 1799 – Napoleon Bonaparte invades Israel but fails to capture it and is forced to leave. c. 1860 – The first neighborhood, Mishkenot Sha'ananim, is built outside of Jerusalem’s city walls. c. 1882 – First large-scale immigration to Israel, mainly from Russia. c. 1904 – Second large-scale immigration from Russia and Poland.
British Mandate (1918 - 1948) Following WW1, Britain was administrative control over the areas which now comprise Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Jordan.	British Period (c. 1917–1948 AD) 1917 – British Foreign Minister Lord Balfour issued on November 2, 1917, the so-called Balfour Declaration, which gave official support for the “establishment in Israel of a national home for the Jewish people” with the commitment not to be prejudiced against the rights of the non-Jewish communities. 1947 – The United Nations approved the partition of Israel into separate Jewish and Arab states on November 29, 1947.
Israel and Jordan (1948 - 1967) A highly volatile era defined by the aftermath of Israel's independence and Jordan's subsequent annexation of the West Bank.	State of Israel Period (c. 1948 – 1967) 1948 – On the day when the British Mandate in Palestine expired, the State of Israel was instituted on May 14, 1948, by the Jewish National Council under the presidency of David Ben Gurion. 1948–1949 – The Arab-Israeli War; the Arabs refused to accept the newly established State of Israel. Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Iraq attacked Israel, but within a year, Israel defeated its attackers. 1950 – Western Jerusalem was proclaimed the capital city of Israel on January 23, 1950. 1956 – The Suez Crisis: Israelis invaded Egyptian territory in October 1956. 1956 – After Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the company that administered the Suez Canal, a joint attack by the French and British was launched. Egypt suffered a military disaster on November 2, 1956. Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula, but after international condemnation, Israel was forced to withdraw. 1967 – Six-Day War: after Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran on May 22, 1967, Israel launched an attack on Egyptian, Jordanian, Syrian, and Iraqi airports on June 5, 1967. After six days, Israel conquered Jerusalem, the Golan Heights, Sinai, and the West Bank.
Israel and the West Bank (1967 - Present)	State of Israel Period (c. 1967 – Present) 1973 – Yom Kippur War: On October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, Syria and Egypt launched a surprise attack against Israel. After the initial success of the attackers, Israel managed to cross the Suez into Egypt and encircle Cairo. Following the intervention of the USA and the Soviet Union, military operations concluded on October 25, 1973. 1978 – The Camp David Accords were signed by Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anvar Sadat in September 1978, at Camp David, USA. Israel agreed to withdraw from the occupied Sinai Peninsula. 1979 – The Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty was signed on March 26, 1979, in Washington.